Vasudeva Krishna and Mathura

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This work examines the antiquity of image worship in India. Its main focus is the Bhagavata religion that evolved around Vasudeva Krishna of the Vrishni clan. The earliest literary reference to Vasudeva was by the grammarian Panini (6th century BCE), and the earliest surviving epigraphic reference was the Heliodorus pillar inscription (2"d century BCE). At Mathura, several noteworthy archaeological finds dated to the early Common Era were recovered from the site of Katra Keshavadeva. In the medieval period, Katra Keshavadeva was subjected to repeated devastation, beginning with that by Mahmud Ghaznavi in 1071 CE. However, within a century a temple dedicated to Vishnu was built at Katra Keshavadeva. Thereafter, the story of destruction followed by construction was repeated over and over again. In the early 17th century, the Keshavadeva temple was rebuilt by Bir Singh Deo Bundela. In 1670, the Mughal emperor, Aurangzeb ordered its destruction.

An Idgah was built at the site. Later developments at Katra Keshavadeva were recorded in the judicial records of colonial India. In 1815, Katra Keshavadeva was sold by auction to Raja Patnimal of Banaras, as was duly recorded in revenue and municipal records. On 8th February 1944, the heirs of Raja Patnimal sold Katra Keshavadeva to Seth Jugal Kishore Birla, who created a trust for the construction of a temple for Shree Krishna. In a surprising development, on 12th October 1968, approximately two bighas of Katra Keshavadeva were handed over to Trust Masjid Idgah. Many documents pertaining to events at Katra Keshavadeva after 1815 are perhaps being presented to the general reader for the first time. The documents attest to the dogged Hindu commitment to the site.

Indian civilization was marked by an extraordinary synthesis in its founding moments. Early Vedic literature had been absorbed with the propitiation of gods through sacred fires, but awareness of the expansive faith of the populace created dissatisfaction with the almost mechanical system of sacrifice. The consequence was a mammoth assimilation of popular beliefs and practices. Though Vedic ritualism survives to the present day, the rise of new religious movements led to a most significant change in the history of Indian religion. An almost seamless transition to image worship was noticeable some centuries before the commencement of the Common Era as puja began to replace yajna. Image-worship and image-making attained centrality, as divinities of the common people were incorporated into the ever-expanding sacred pantheon. As perceptive scholars noted, image worship "originated ... with the lay community" (Jacobi 1894: xxi). The new synthesis was succinctly summed up, As time passed the dividing lines grew fainter, and in the end there was evolved a faith so tolerant and so broad that it could embrace in a common theological scheme all grades of religious practise .... (Coomaraswamy 1971: 3)

This work commences with a brief discussion on the antecedents of image worship in India. Its main focus is the Bhagavata religion which originated among the Vrishni (Yadu/ Yadava/Satvata) people. Over a span of some centuries, the Bhagavata religion that evolved around Vasudeva Krishna fused with the cults of the Vedic Vishnu, the cosmic god Narayana, and the pastoral deity Gopala. As a result of the fusion, Vasudeva Krishna as incarnation of Vishnu, emerged supreme. Concurrently, Vishnu rose to be the most influential member of the triad of Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva - Creator, Preserver, and Destroyer. An examination of the sacred, literary, and epigraphic evidence sheds light on the antiquity of the Bhagavata religion.

The Chandogya Upanishad (7th-6th century BCE), one of the oldest Upanishads, presented Devakiputra Krishna as a disciple of Ghora Angirasa. The earliest literary reference to Vasudeva was by the grammarian Panini, placed around the 6th century BCE, and the earliest surviving epigraphic reference was the Heliodorus pillar inscription of the 2nd century BCE. At Mathura, so intimately connected with Krishna of the Mahabharata, the most noteworthy archaeological finds were the Vasu doorjamb inscription, the Mora doorjamb, and the Mora well inscription, all dated to the early Common Era, and recovered from the site of Katra Keshavadeva. In the medieval period, Islamic invaders, and subsequently several Muslim rulers, displayed a repugnance to images and sacred shrines. Katra Keshavadeva was subjected to repeated attacks, beginning with the invasion of Mahmud Ghaznavi in 1071 CE. However, within a century of Mahmud Ghaznavi's devastation, a temple dedicated to Vishnu was built at Katra Keshavadeva. It was duly recorded in the Mathura prasasti of the reign of Vijayapala, dated Samvat 1207 (1150 CE). Thereafter, the story of destruction followed by construction was repeated over and over again.

In the early seventeenth century, the Keshavadeva temple was rebuilt by Bir Singh Deo Bundela at the cost of 33 million rupees, when gold was priced at Rs. 10/- per tola. In 1650, the French jeweller and merchant, Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, described it as "one of the most sumptuous buildings in all India," visible from a distance of more than 5 or 6 coss.

In 1669, the Mughal emperor, Aurangzeb issued a general directive for the demolition of Hindu schools and temples, and in 1670, specifically ordered the destruction of the Keshavadeva temple. The event was recorded by Saqi Mustaid Khan and the Italian, Niccolao Manucci, among others. An Idgah was built at the site of the razed temple. Later developments at Katra Keshavadeva were recorded in considerable detail in judicial records of colonial India. In 1770, after their victory in the battle of Govardhan, the Marathas acquired control over Agra and Mathura and declared the entire Katra Keshavadeva (13.37 acres) as nazul (government) land.

When the East India Company became ruler of the region in 1803, it continued to treat Katra Keshavadeva as nazul land. In 1815, Katra Keshavadeva was sold by auction to Raja Patnimal of Banaras, as was duly recorded in revenue and municipal records. The names of the legal heirs of Raja Patnimal were also subsequently noted in British accounts. The Idgah group challenged the rights of Raja Patnimal and his heirs but met with no success in British courts. On 8th February 1944, the heirs of Raja Patnimal sold Katra Keshavadeva to Seth Jugal Kishore Birla, who created a trust for the construction of a temple for Shree Krishna. In a surprising development, on 12th October 1968, approximately two bighas of Katra Keshavadeva were handed over to Trust Masjid Idgah. Many documents pertaining to events at Katra Keshavadeva after 1815 are perhaps being presented to the general reader for the first time.

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