Upasana (Set of 3 Books)

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Upamana in Indian Philosophy (An Old and Rare Book)

Gangesa on Upamana in Indian Epistemology (Faultless to a Fault)

Dishonoured by Philosophers – Upamana in Indian Epistemology

This book approved for Dr. S. K. Belvalkar Prize by University of Poona, con stitutes a study of Upamana-a means of Valid Knowledge for the comprehension of Ultimate Reality i.e. Brahman.

The book is divided into fourteen chapters which discuss elaborately the concept of Upamana (Comparison) as found in the different systems of philosophy Nyaya Vaiseşika - Mimämsä - Vedanta-Sämkhya-Bauddha and Jaina. The author has exploited various relevant original texts Sūtras, Bhāṣyas, Värttikas, etc. belonging to each and every school of thought. Even in a single system, the author has found divergent views and has tried to analyse the same. For instance, he has discussed Visistadvaita, Śuddhadvaita and Dvaita dvaita schools vis-a-vis Upamana and has devoted a separate chapter to each school. In course of discussion he has made an attempt to coordinate and evaluate the elements supplied by various systematists to the problems regarding nature, kind and process involved.

Dr. Shiv Kumar And (Late) Dr. (Miss) Chitrarekha Kher Udayana, the author of Atmatattva viveka was a Maithila brähmana by birth and flourished in the second half of the tenth century. Besides his celebrated work Atmatattvaviveka, he wrote Lakşaṇamälä. Nyayakusumanjali, Nyayaparisuddhi and Kiranavali on Prasastapāda's Padarthar dharmasamgraha.

**Contents and Sample Pages**

The present volume is a sequel to the author's previous work entitled Dishonoured by Philosophers: Upamana in Indian Epistemology (2009) where she introduced the notion of upamana, its definition, process and also its status in Indian epistemology in general and the Nyaya school in particular. The book ended with an exposition of Udayanacarya, an eleventh-century Nyaya philosopher. But the debate did not end there. Many Indian philosophers took the hard task of reducing upamana to other pramanas, and there were other objections as well.

The sequel volume is a logical and historical extension of the arguments made in defence of upamana in the previous work. An interesting feature of the continuing debate is that a large number of Indian philosophers including the Bauddhas, Jainas, Samkhyas, Vaisesikas, Mimarnsakas, Carvakas and even individual Naiyayikas such as Bhasarvajna were still doubtful of the status of upamana. Over and above all, there was the question of logical economy in a scheme of pramanas. The present work for the first time provides an intensive study of how the Indian philosopher Gangesa Upadhyaya took up the challenge in the twelfth century to give upamana a definite, irreducible place in the scheme of pramanas. Based on Gangesa's monumental work Upamanacintamani along with Pragalbhacarya’s celebrated commentary on it, the author reopens the question of upamana in a dialogical method and tries to measure the perfection of Gangesa's arguments. She upholds Gangesa's standpoint as the height of perfection, the most vigorous defence of upamana in a series of defences and objections in a long course, and titles this task of Gangesa Faultless to a Fault in her book.

Uma Chattopadhyay has been teaching philosophy at the graduate and post-graduate levels for over thirty years. Educated at Jadavpur University, she earlier taught at many colleges including Bethune College and Lady Brabourne College, Kolkata. She joined at the Department of Philosophy, University of Calcutta in 2005, where she is currently Professor of Philosophy. She participated in many national and international seminars in various parts of India, and extensively published in academic journals and anthologies. She was a Fellow in Maison des Sciences de 1'Homme, Paris and delivered lectures at Uppsala University, Sweden. She has a wide range of research interests: Indian epistemology, metaphysics, philosophy of language, philosophy of religion and ethics. Her other published monograph is Dishonoured by Philosophers: Upamana in Indian Epistemology (2009).

IT is by the ahaituki krpa of my mother Ananandamayee that I could complete the book, Faultless to a Fault: Gangesa on Upamana in Indian Epistemology. I had to cross many hurdles including the sudden demise of my elder and only sister Gouri Mukherjee very recently on 17 May 2014. I cannot think about my family, past and present, without my dearest did/. There was a great vacuum in my life. With a heavy heart, I had to come back to the work of finishing this book. I had been deeply involved in the study and understanding of Indian philosophy from the early stages of my academic career and had a rare opportunity to study many branches of it including the Nyaya system from stalwarts like Prof. Pradyot Kumar Mukhopadhyay, Prof. Kali Krishna Banerjee, Prof. Srilekha Dutta, Prof. Krishna Roy, Pandit Pancanan Sastri, Pandit Narmada Tarkatirtha, Prof. Tapan Kumar Chakraborty, Prof. Sukhoranjan Saha and many other eminent teachers of the philosophy world. How much knowledge I acquired from them I do not know; at least what I gained from them is to love Indian philosophy and culture of this nation. And my commitment to this tradition came from them, I believe.

The ability of Indian philosophers to understand the depth of a problem and their potential to resolve the same are amazing to me. What I learned from my teachers was to address a problem applying both Indian and Western philosophies. It is a rare kind of inspiration that I got from the academia of Jadavpur University's philosophy department. I have to acknowledge the contribution from an illustrious teacher Prof. Pranab Kumar Sen. He always inspired us by saying "You have to play in the field, going beyond merely watching and making comments on others". This was really a valuable advice for me. Guided by such stimulated advices and due to my deep love for studies in the Nyaya tradition, I started the work on Gangesa's Upamanacintamani, a part of his monumental work Tatitacintamani, though knowing fully that I was not competent enough to understand thoroughly a Navya-Nyaya philosopher like Gangesa Upadhyaya. Then why and how did I come to understand Gangesa?

In my undergraduate course, I was surprised to notice a problem regarding upamana pramana (knowledge by comparison) besides many other problems of Indian and Western philosophies. While studying Udayanacaryas Nyayakusumanjalih in my post-graduate course, I was surprised to see that both the Nyaya and Mimamsa systems are accepting this source of knowledge but totally in two different senses. After completing my Master's, I got the rare opportunity of doing Ph.D. under the guidance of Prof. Pradyot Kumar Mukhopadhyay. I changed my initial research topic on Indian scepticism (aprama) and took finally upamana as topic for my research. I immediately realized that under his able guidance I will be able to swim (at least to some extent) in the ocean of philosophy. It took a long time, but I could complete my research in the mid-1990s. The subject was vast as I considered all the schools of Indian tradition in the context of upamana. I developed the first part of my work and later made it a publication Dishonoured by Philosophers: Upamana in Indian Epistemology where I have discussed the debates between Nyaya-Bauddha, Nyaya-Vaisesika and also Nyaya-Mimamsa etc.

Historically I have made a story on upamana from Gautama to Udayanacarya (the story from the fifth to the eleventh century CE) regarding the issue of upamana. Of course, the development is mainly logical, but to some extent historical. I ended the research dissertation with the view of Gangesa on upamana. It is really a brilliant feature that most of the philosophers including some Nyaya-Vaisesikas have either shown indifference or raised objections and showed that Nyaya position is faulty but all the three stalwart philosophers of the Nyaya tradition ranging from the fifth to the twelfth century - Gautama, Udayanacarya and Gangesa - are given much importance to the problem of upamana. Final faultless position is shown by Gangesa. Gautama and Udayanacarya are comparatively lighter than Gangesa. I had to complete the story of upamana (with the help of my teacher and with my very limited capacity) by Gangesa.

In my previous book I could not include Gangesa's view on upamana but I thought that if possible I might prepare another dissertation on upamana where Gangesa would be focused. The text Upamanaciniamani is very hard and full of Navya- Nyaya technicalities; so I have tried to present Gangesa not by literal translation but only the idea of Gangesa in today's language. This is to complete a story and to show how much the philosophers of Indian soil are committed to their own tradition, which is full of rationality. So presentation of Gangesa is not only the outcome of my emotions but is academically argued. This is actually a continuation of the first book. I have only tried to make a gateway to the future researchers on Indian philosophy. I have presented Gangesa in two chapters. But before that and before giving Gangesa's final answer, one external objection is raised in the first chapter, i.e. insertion of upamana makes the scheme of pramanas anomalous. It would have been better if Gautama or Gangesa could delete upamana from their scheme of pramanas. I have given an alternative answer and finally a positive answer in favour of the Nyaya position.

I am happy that I could complete this book after five years of publishing of my first book. I am late as I was heavily engaged in my departmental activities. As an acting coordinator I had to take responsibilities of many publications and UGC-5AP- DR5 programmes, and my personal academic programme of publication was postponed. My desire was immense but possibility of giving shape to it was disturbed. I had to accept the delay.

The fact that I could complete the present work was made possible by the direct and indirect contributions of many. The foremost among them is my husband Arun Bandyopadhyay, who currently holds Nurul Hasan Chair Professor of History at the University of Calcutta. He first suggested the idea of completing this book on Gangesa as a search for perfection in our arguments for upamana - faultless to a fault. But his constant pestering for finishing the book was creating a kind of nervousness in me. It is only because of him that I could prepare this book. He is always positive for my academic pursuits. I always believe if research is one step, publishing it is another step. I was reluctant to take the second step; it is only for Arun that I have crossed the second step and the idea of Gangesa in the present form could see the light of the day.

This time I am deeply indebted to my very dear daughter- in-law Amrita (Manorama) and my son Manasij (Bapan). Their peaceful, enjoyable and creative life is a real inspiration for me. I can do many positive things when they are happy. My daughter-in-law even went further and used to ask me the question whether her telephone call from England was creating disturbance to my studies. A computer engineer by profession, she has always appeared beautiful and nice to me. Her finer senses are really attractive and much inspiring. May God bless them for their health and good soul. Her father Shri Gautam Bhattacharya (Bhaiti), mother Smt. Bhaswati Bhattacharya (Deepsikha) and younger sister Arpita (Mimburi) are my constant inspiration in academic journey. I am really grateful to them. I am immensely indebted to them in many ways. May God bless us for this beautiful bonding.

The five other young stars - Bishnupriya (a very good classical vocalist), Nandini, Anindita, Somapriya and Ayanika - have always worked as sources of inspiration. And they are full of qualities and stand always by my side in different ways. They know how much valuable is their inspiration for me and in which way they can all help me. I am also happy with the kids of my family. They are my inspiration. They are Baby Queen, Ganubhai, Gunudidi, Gopal and Gadadhar. My two sister-in-laws, Didibhai (Amita Chakraborty) and Baby (Anindita Chatterjee), are always with me. I could make myself more creative by their sweet presence in my life. My another extended sister Mitra, despite our infrequent meetings in recent times, silently make a positive presence in my life. I do always cherish her company.

By the help and support from the domestic ladies - Roma, Anita and Seema - I could take much time from the regular household works.

My indebtedness to Mrs Tapati Mitra is immense. Her meticulous typing with the diacritical mark is really praiseworthy. I pray blessings of my mother for her and for her beautiful family.

I cannot thank my teacher, Prof. Pradyot Kumar Mukhopadhyay; so I take this opportunity to convey my pranama to him. I beg his blessings which will help me in every way.

I am immensely grateful to our Hon'ble Vice-Chancellor Prof. Suranjan Das. His academic inspiration is unforgettable. I feel proud when I see a dynamic personality like Prof. Das is leading the University of Calcutta for its academic excellence.

Some of the portions of the present work I presented in refresher courses, orientation programmes, and seminars in different universities and colleges and the feedback that I received is really unforgettable. That made me to think and re-think on different issues particularly on the issue of similarity, place of upamana in the scheme and also regarding the independent status of upamana in the scheme of pramana. My thanks to all such participants of refresher courses and orientation programmes. We not only teach in the courses, we learn immensely from them. So I am obliged to the participants, to the directors of academic staff colleges, and the coordinators of such programmes and the organizers of different seminars.

I am very happy with the production of my previous book by Shri Susheel Mittal of D.K. Printworld (Delhi). So this time also I wanted him to take up the responsibility. D.K. Printworld's ethics and production method are really amazing. Distance is not at all a factor for a good job. This is proved by the dedication of Shri Susheel Mittal and his company D.K. Printworld. I am happy and deeply obliged to him.

I cannot convey my thanks to my Ph.D. scholars, but I can convey my blessings for their academic support which they have given in their own way. I need to mention specially the name of Mr Siddique Alam Beg, my Ph.D. scholar. He was all the time ready to bring books from different corners. May God bless him for his academic enthusiasm.

My close neighbours Krishna and Kanchan are always with me and have very much inspired me for my academic and professional activities. I am grateful to them for their positive role.

There are many colleagues in my department and in the other departments with whom I made my academic communications that enriched myself. Of them, special mention can be made of Dr Sharmistha Bakshi, Dr Krishna Chatterjee, Prof. Subirranjan Bhattacharya, Prof. Manidipa Sanyal, Prof. Nini Chanda, Prof. Aparna Banerjee, Prof. Priyambada Sarkar, Prof. Dilip Kumar Mohanta, Dr Shilpita Mitra, Dr Shyamasree Bhattacharya, Dr Mahjabeen Jahan, Dr Pralayankar Bhattacharyya and Smt. Sunanda Das and many others. I must also mention the names of Prof. Indrani Sanyal of the Department of Philosophy, Jadavpur University, and Prof. Amarnath Bhattacharya, retired professor of philosophy, Burdwan University who have always enlightened me by their brilliant observations, communications and conversations. I always enjoy teaching, so the past and the present students influence me in my thought process. I convey my blessings to them all.

The volume is a study of the importance of upamana (knowledge by analogy) in Indian epistemology. The two stalwart schools of Nyaya and Mimamsa admit the relevance of upamana but differ with regard to many things including the object of knowledge by upamana.

The book explores the way Naiyayikas and the Mimamsakas differ on some major points with reference to upamana – in their very definition of upamana, for instance. The focus is on the Nyaya position on upamana and the usefulness of upamana as stressed by the Naiyayikas. The analytic study by the dialectical method explains the classical Nyaya view of upamana of Gautama and his followers and then the classical Mimamsa views. It considers the views of Naiyayikas Jayanta Bhatta and Udayanacarya to show how much the Naiyayikas were logical in accepting a particular view on upamana. It gives the views of some other schools including the Bauddha and Vaisesika schools against upamana as such and against Nyaya and Mimamsa views of upamana in particular. Throughout, a number of philosophical scholars and their original texts spread over many centuries are examined.

The book will interest scholars and students of Indian philosophy.

Uma Chattopadhyay is currently Reader in Philosophy, University of Calcutta. Educated at Jadavpur University, Dr. Chattopadhyay has a long teaching career in Calcutta University – affiliated undergraduate colleges, including Bethune College and lady Brabourne College, Kolkata. She also taught at the post – graduate classes of Philosophy in Rabindra Bharati University and Jadavpur University. She has contributed papers in seminars organized by many centres of higher learning including the one at the Department of Theology, Philosophy of Religion at the Uppsala University, Sweden. For a short period, she was a Fellow at Maison des Sciences de 1 ‘Homme, Paris in 2005. Her current research interests include Indian Epistemology, Metaphysics, Philosophy of Language, Philosophy of Religion, Ethics (particularly Applied Ethics). The author specially enjoys studying philosophy, both Indian and Western, from local and global perspectives. She has published papers in many academic journals and anthologies.

This book mainly considers the challenge of establishing the independent status of upamana pramana. The author’s intention is to show why and how the upamana pramana is dishonoured as well as honoured in Indian epistemology. The peculiar status of upamana in Indian epistemology attracted me since my undergraduate classes. These became much more interesting when we were taught Nyayakusumanjali in our postgraduate classes. I was really surprised to see the two important points:

(A) Only the two schools of Indian tradition admit this source and all the others are against this.
(B) The two schools again are admitting the same for two purposes.

In my PhD programme I wanted to see the matter as closely as possible. I was fortunate to have my revered teacher Professor Pradyot Kumar Mukhopadhyay of Jadavpur University as my supervisor at this time. Though the research took a long time to be completed, I had the rare opportunity of prolonged interactions with him during this period. It was possible to study a considerable number of original texts in connection with my research under his able guidance. My indebtedness to him is boundless. I should also mention the unusual closeness I had during the time of research with two stalwart pandits of West Bengal in the twentieth century. They were the Late Pandit Narmada Tarkatirtha and Pandit Panchanan Shastri, both of whom had a deep academic expectation from my studies of original texts with them. Over and above all, I had the rare opportunity of meeting the legendary Professor Gopinath Bhattacharya several times during his lifetime and immensely benefited from my interactions with him.

In this book I have done some revision and also given a consistent and limited shape of my research. Here, I have considered the views of both the Nyaya and Mimamsa. Finally, I have defended the Nyaya position following the view of Udayanacarya. Udayanacarya in a sense is considered as the foremost philosopher in the Navya – Nyaya tradition. It would have been better if I could include the views of Gangesa Upadhyaya, the famous and the chief exponent of Navya – Nyaya tradition, but I could not. I have, of course, the desire to write on Gangesa in future.

The striking feature which I want to show al through this work is this. Some philosophers such as the Buddhists, Jainas and Samkhyas or even those in the sister – system of Nyaya, the Vaisesikas are against upamana. But at the same time, barring a few, most of the Nyaya and Mimamsa philosophers from the Sutra – Bhasya texts to the recent literature are in favour of this and admits the independent states of the upamana.

In course of developing the views of different philosophers many important issues are considered, such as the issue of language learning process in some particular cases or the metaphysical status of sakti (word – meaning relation) and similarity at least from the Buddhist standpoint. The question also is raised: Is upamana and useful pramana? The views of the Buddhist logicians are given much importance to have the deeper understanding of the issue. However, the book is neither a historical account of the views nor is a descriptive exposition of the theory of upamana. This text is an analytical and not merely a textual study of the theme of upamana. But on the basis of my close study in original Sanskrit, I have arranged and developed the thesis of upamana in a logical and analytical way. Here by “Theories of upamana” I understand the positive theories of upamana. So I have given effort to elaborate the theories of Mimamsakas and the Naiyayikas. The views of a number of internal and external critics of the positive theories of upamana have also been considered. The different philosophical views relating to upamana belong to different ages distributed over several centuries. Their style of thinking and writing are widely different.

I am happy to mention here that I found Jayanta most enjoyable. In Mimamsa I found Prabhakara most difficult and Pattabhiram Shastri most easily intelligible. But contemporary to Pattabhiram Shastri, Pandit Badrinath Shukla, the great Naiyayika, has written on upamana (mostly unpublished) more extensively than Pattabhiram Shastri. This also was very much enjoyable to me. Excepting Kumarila, Mimamsa philosophers in general have written far less extensively on upamana than the Nyaya philosophers. This, and not my subjective bias, has helped me to defend the Nyaya position.

My desire for the present publication is long standing. While talking my viva – voce examination for the Ph.D degree years ago, it was Prof. Raghunath Ghosh, now Dean, Faculty of Arts, North Bengal University, who first suggested me to make my dissertation a book for larger audience. I am grateful to Professor Ghosh for this early suggestion. I was late in doing the same for some deep emotional reasons. For bringing me out from the crisis, Professor Arun Bandopadhyay, former Dean of Arts and currently Nurul Hasan Professor of History, University of Calcutta was mainly instrumental. He inspired me greatly for the new venture of publication of the book. His inspiration and co – operation is immeasurable.

Professor Suranjan Das, Vice – Chancellor, University of Calcutta took keen interest in the publication this volume. I am deeply obliged to him for this expression of support.

My brother Dr. Chandan Kumar Goswami, Reader and Head, Department of Philosophy, Jogesh Chandra Choudhuri College, Kolkata is another scholar who came forward to do immense help in preparing the manuscript for final publication. I pray to God for blessings for him and for his loving family. My Department of philosophy, University of Calcutta has always encouraged me to complete the book. I am grateful to him. My other beloved colleagues Dr Manidipa Sanyal, Dr Krishna Chatterjee, Dr Sarmistha Bakshi and Dr Aparna Banerjee have been very much positive in different ways. Dr Nini Chanda, our Head of the Department, helped me to concentrate on the matter by her good leadership for the Department. I am obliged to them all.

Some of my teachers of Jadavpur University influence me in many ways during my study there and after. Special mention should be made of Professor Sukharanjan Saha, Professor Tapan Kumar Chakraborty, Professor Krishna Roy and Professor Sreelekha Dutta. I owe more to them they know. I convey my regards.

My senor colleagues, Professor Indrani Sanyal, Professor Ratna Dutta Sharma and my friend Professor Madhumita Chattopadhyay of Jadavpur University have been constantly with me in all academic pursuits. Their silent co – operation is unforgettable. My friend Dr Gopa Gupta, Reader and Head of the Department of Philosophy, Bethune College, Kolkata is real friend indeed. I have deep obligation to her in many ways.

Professor Nilima Misra, former Principal of Bethune College, Kolkata, Professor Puspa Misra, former Head of the Department of Philosophy and former Principal of the same College, Professor Gopa Dutta, former Principal of Lady Brabourne College, Kolkata and currently President of Higher Secondary Council, West Bengal, Dr Aditi Nag Chowdhury currently Reader and head of the Department of Microbiology, Lady Brabourne College constantly encouraged me to continue an academically creative career. Another very silent person Sri Jagadindra Samajpati, an official of the Government of West Bengal, did a lot for me. I am obliged to every one of them.

Dr. Manjushree Chowdhury, former Professor of Philosophy, Rabindra Bharati University and my sister Dr. Sarbani Banerjee, currently Reader in Philosophy in the same university have always inspired my academic activities. A loving bondage developed among us. Smt. Annapurna Bhattacharya, daughter of the late Pandit Panchanan Shastri, frequently cam to me and inspired me throughout the years almost as the representative of Panditmasai. Our relationship has been so familial as to require no formal obligation. But I am personally indebted to her.

My father and the elder brother of my father, and my father – in – law and the elder brother of my father – in – law had great trust in me and my academic future. None of them is alive today. I feel blessed that I may fulfill their dream partially by the publication of my book. My mother – in – law till her death in 2006, gave me all – out support in academic matters. My ailing mother is still giving me sustenance in her own ways. My pranama to them both. Throughout the days of research and authorship, the distraction created by four of my young relatives – Mumna, Nannai, Munia and Buri – remained attractive. I acknowledge their loving concern.

Earlier versions of some of the chapters of this book have been already published in the Journal of Asiatic Society and Jadavpur Journal of Philosophy. I am grateful to both these institutions. My deep gratitude is to Mr. Susheel K. Mittal of D.K. Printworld. He has unusually taken so much interest and care for this publication. I am also grateful to my computer typists Sri Somen Mukhopadhyay and Mrs. Tapati Mitra.

I feel proud in stating that I am grateful to my loving undergraduate and postgraduate students. Their positive attitude always gave me a deep inspiration. My M.Phil. and Ph.D. scholars are also with me in their own ways. My academic obligation to my students is boundless.

I am very much obliged to my domestic supporters, my sisters Manju and Shibani. They are always with me and with my ailing mother and with their prompt domestic works. I could not have completed my academic work but for their constant assistance.

My greatest pleasure is the declare that my non – demanding son Bapan (Manasij) was always with me in my pleasure and pain. His loving attitude is always my strength of life. Arun, my husband, though not able to do the household work, is uncompromising about any gap, lacuna, break, or insensitiveness regarding my academic commitment. Research and publication are two different things. Without Arun’s encouragement it was impossible for me to do this publication.

Finally, without the aid of the many persons mentioned above, the book would not have been published. My gratitude does not imply their endorsement. The mistake in this book, large or small, are my own.