The rapturous qawwali of Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan, the graceful whirling of the dervishes, the silent meditation of fakirs, are the most readily recognized features of Sufism worldwide. What, then, are Sufi practices? How can we understand their history and tradition? This book is an in-depth study on the lesser-explored history of Sufi practices in South Asia. Covering the formative period of Sufism in this region, Sufi Rituals and Practices studies exercises like sama (listening to poetry and music) and zikr (remembrance of God) through the careers of the earliest Sufi orders in the region-Chishti and Suhrawardi. It allows the reader critical insight into Sufi exercises-the meaning, structure, and performance of sama, the long debate on the legality of music, dance, and poetry as religious practices, tensions between Sufis and the State around the permissibility of sama, zikr as a core Sufi exercise, the practice of sama and zikr across orders, and the importance of spiritual etiquette in Sufism. The work uriderstands spiritual practices as a critical element in the development of Sufism in South Asia. Moving beyond north-south binarles, the author focuses on the Deccan, weaving a seamless narrative that reflects the contributions of generations of important Sufi masters. Shedding light on the private world of Sufi practices, the work introduces English language readers to a full-length translation of a treatise written in the defence of listening to music and poetry as an integral spiritual exercise

Kashshaf Ghani specializes in pre-modern South Asia, focusing on the history of Sufism, its practices, interactions, setworks, and regional experiences. He is also interested in Indo-Persian histories, interreligious interactions, the history and culture of the Persianate world, and Asian interconnections. Ghani studied History at Presidency College, Calcutta, and the University of Calcutta, where he completed his PhD. He has held teaching and research positions at Aliah University, Kolkata; the University of Calcutta; The Asiatic Society, Kolkata; Universite Sorbonne-Nouvelle, Paris; Zentrurn Moderner Orient, Berlin; and Maulana Abul Kalam Azad Institute of Asian Studies, Kolkata. He currently teaches at Nalanda University, India.

I remain deeply grateful to all those who, over the years, have extended their generous help and kind support. Rather than a practice, this note sincerely acknowledges their kind-heartedness in the journey towards making this book.

My academic mentor Amit Dey's relentless support and meticulous supervision made my doctoral research possible. This book draws from that foundational research expanded over the years. His invaluable suggestions, long discussions, and perceptive observations have been of great value at all times. Mere thanks can never do justice to his multifaceted contribution to my life and work.

I remain indebted to my teachers-Rajat Kanta Ray, Subhas Ranjan Chakravarty, Bhaskar Chakrabarty, Shireen Maswood, Hari Vasudevan, Madhumita Mazumdar, Suchandra Ghosh, and Bishnupriya Basak. It feels terrible that Hari could not see this finished work. I have been fortunate to receive suggestions and guidance from many professors in the course of my research-Ramakanta Chakrabarty, Akhtar Hussain, Ranjit Sen, Kazi Sufior Rahaman, Rajsekhar Basu, Abdul Gani Imaratwale and Dilip Kumar Mohanta. I have always benefitted from their experience and insight. Samita Sen-under whom I was fortunate to study during my MA, and thereafter work with on the SEPHIS e-Magazine project-has always been there like a pillar of guidance and support. The things that I have learnt from her in all these years-academic and professional-are too valuable to be thanked for. I am grateful to her for being so encouraging, understanding, and affectionate.

Bruce Lawrence and Carl Ernst have been extremely generous to ex- tend their help and guidance whenever I approached them. They introduced me to Scott Kugle, who has always been helpful. No amount of thanks is enough for their kindness. I remain grateful to Tony Stewart and Arthur Buehler for sharing with me their experiences of researching on Sufism in South Asia.

What is Sama? Practice and Debate

Sufism represents the spiritual dimension of Islam in the doctrinal sense. It also signifies an individual's experience of a spiritual journey under- taken through formal initiation under a Sufi master, or being attached to a Sufi saint or his shrine as a lay follower. A seeker in the Sufi path is driven by a deep yearning and quest for spiritual salvation through in- tense devotion to the words of God revealed in the Quran, combined with the traditions of Prophet Muhammad as the perfect model. As a practice, the Sufi path requires an individual to advance and overcome his own self, towards a limitless realization of the Divine, with the ultimate aim of spiritual union with God. Sufi masters describe this as a journey where the path is uncharted, the boundaries limitless, and the goal elusive. This abstraction is one of the ways to understand the idea of Sufism.

Sufism, over its formative period, thus came to signify an interpersonal relation with God, where the disciple seeks the ultimate aim of spiritual union through rigorous practice of prayers, litanies, and meditative exercises. These are aimed towards the seeker's moral and spiritual elevation by purging his heart of insidious and materialist tendencies. Passing through long periods of austerity and spiritual rigour allowed Sufis to attain various qualities and also be socially identified as devotee (abid). poor (faqir), ascetic (zahid), lover (ashiq), gnostic (arif), etc. These were considered important in terms of being aware of the Divine realities, which eventually allowed the Sufi to graduate from a beginner to a wali (friend of God), making him the chosen one, 'honoured above the rest of His worshippers, after His messengers and Prophets.