Philosophy And Ethics

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The book entitled "Philosophy and Ethics" is a collection of essays on different-different topics under one roof, is first of its kind, devotes itself entirely to the interpretation and understanding of the cardinal religious, philosophical doctrine in relation to both ethical and social perspective with its present-day relevance. This collection of essays are written in a group. Here emphasis is placed on insight and own opinion and not on mere textual elaboration. In the introductory essay the author gives a philosophical background that philosophy i.e. a subject of bio ethics, socio-ethics and the philosophical too, concerns the human being and their values, which are the core of our life. Moral values as well as rational than traditional, the ultimate objective is to find its relevance This is a unique book as it meant not for the specialists and scholars, but also for general reader interested in philosophy.

Kumkum Sinha, Ph.D., D. Litt., Associate professor of philosophy at J.J.College, Gaya (a constituent of Magadh University, Bodh-Gaya). She received M.A. Degree in first class from Patna University, Patna and was awarded Ph.D. as UGC J. R. Fellow, Department of Philosophy, Patna University, Patna in 1981. She received her D. Litt. Degree from Ranchi University, Ranchi (Jharkhanda) in the year 1990 under the guidance of Dr. P.B. Vidyarthi, Professor and Head, Department of Philosophy, Ranchi University, Ranchi. She has authored two books (1) Religio-Social Philosophy and (ii) Personality, Freedom and Value. She has contributed many research papers to the various journal of philosophy, national and international both. She is Life member of various academic bodies i.e. Journal radian Council of Philosophical Research, Indian Philosophical Congr Puravid Parishad, Patna, Bihar Darshan Parishad etc. etc. She has carried out UGC Minor Research Project in year 2011 on the topic "Human Values and Virtues in Indian Context.

The book "Philosophy and Ethics" is a study in the fields of social, metaphysical, bioethical and ethical fields. It is divided into four sections. The first section deals with the metaphysical aspects, the problem concerned in our day-to-day life. The second section is related to the bio-ethical issues, which are very relevant to the present time. There are six essays in this section. There are some essays in the third section related to the society, i.e. the social problems and the philosophy of Swami Vivekananda has been discussed. The last or fourth section is to highlight on the moral and ethical values which are the ultimate end of life. To attain moksha or Nirvana is the highest value in life, it can be obtained in life or after the life. The ultimate goal of human life is to attain spiritual perfection (moksha), or freedom from transmigration of the atman. The social existence of an individual is means for attaining this supreme goal. Since an individual cannot attain moksha without fulfilling his (her) individual and social duties, responsibilities and obligations, Hindu social philosophy...includes the essential social principles and practices, goals of human life: dharma (moral law), artha (wealth), kama (pleasure), and moksha (spiritual perfection, the ultimate goal). Although there are various views among the Hindu thinkers regarding the content of moksha, all systems agree that moksha is the liberation of the soul from the bondage of flesh and the limitations of the finite. The terms moksa and nirvana are often used interchangeably in the Jain texts. In Jainism, moksha (liberation) follows nirvana. Nirvana means final release from the karmic bondage. An arhat becomes a siddha ("one who is accomplished") after nirvana.

When an enlightened human, such as an arihant or a Tirthankara, extinguishes his remaining aghatiya karmas and thus ends his worldly existence, it is called nirvana. Jains celebrate Diwali as the day of nirvâG a of Mahavira. Uttaradhyana Sutra provides an account of Gautama explaining the meaning of nirvana to Kesi, a disciple of Parshva. There is a safe place in view of all, but difficult of approach, where there is no old age nor death, no pain nor disease. It is what is called nirvana, or freedom from pain, or perfection, which is in view of all; it is the safe, happy, and quiet place which the great sages reach. That is the eternal place, in view of all, but difficult of approach. Those sages who reach it are free from sorrows, they have put an end to the stream of existence.

To lead a healthy and peaceful life we all are required to relate with the Ayurveda which is the most powerful and effective. Direct observation is the most remarkable feature of Ayurveda, though at times it is mixed up with metaphysics. The Samhita emphasizes that of all types of evidences the most dependable ones are those that are directly observed by the eyes. In Ayurveda successful medical treatment crucially depends on four factors: the physician, substances (drugs or diets), nurse and patient. The qualifications of physician are: clear grasp of the theoretical content of the science, a wide range of experience, practical skill and cleanliness; qualities of drugs or substances are: abundance, applicability, multiple use and richness in efficacy; qualifications of the nursing attendant are: knowledge of nursing techniques, practical skill, attachment for the patient and cleanliness; and the essential qualifications of the patients are: good memory, obedience to the instructions of the doctors, courage and ability to describe the symptoms. Some writers say that Ayurveda is thousands of thousands years old. Acharya Vishwa Nath Dwivedi writes in his book in Bhartiya Ras Shashtra that in early years, when communication language was not written in script, the Guru [teacher] memorizes the pupil the Vedas in Gurukul and this tradition was continue upto the years and years till the script did not came in existence. "Atharva Veda" is memorized in this tradition to save the short precepts / sentences. From mouth to mouth these Vedas were alive. Earlier scripts were written on Taalpatra, Bhojapatra, but they cannot be saved for many years. Then script was written on the stone and copper sheets. In Atharva Veda, Ayurveda verses are written, by which it can be assumed that Ayurveda is as old as the Vedas. In "Rig Veda" some maxim, precepts are written about the direction of keeping good health. If Atharva Veda and Rig Vedas are thousands and thousands of years old, the life of Ayurveda should be counted in the same manner. But the actual age of the Ayurvedic practice is difficult to establish because it was practiced by the tribes living in the small groups, then the concept came to the wise persons and slowly and gradually it took shape as a mode of treatment and health care system. However any written descriptions are not available. Only correlation and circumstantial evidences is possible to establish the life of Ayurveda.

This book is decidedly a call to the ordinary reader to fervently emulate the ideas. I hope, it will be well received by both scholars and general readers.

I express my sincere and deep sense of gratitude to Prof. Ramesh Chandra Sinha, Rtd. University Professor and Head of the Department, Patna University, Patna for their valuable suggestion and encouragement. I expose my gratitude to Prof. Vijay Kumar Sinha, University Professor and Head, Department of philosophy, Magadh University, Bodh-Gaya, who spared his valuable time to discuss my problems. I offer my deep sense of gratitude to Sri Shiva Nath Prasad, Founder Editor of the journal "The Philosophical Quest" a bi-annual Journal and also the editor of Multi-Volume Series of Ethics and Applied Ethics. Being a non-teacher his efforts are a matter of appreciation. In such a later age he is serving the society, has encouraged me to write on the topics. I express my sincere thanks to Dr. Kiran Kumari of G.D.M. College, Patna who always helped me in manifold ways, really I am speechless.

I am indebted to my late parents S.K.Turiar and Jagdishwari Devi for their inspiration and encouragement throughout the life and after. Finally, I am not less thankful to my husband Sri S.K.N.Sinha for his sincere co-operation in manifold ways for the accomplishment of the task thrown upon my shoulder. I am not less thankful to both of my sons Saurabh Sinha and Shaswat Sinha for their patience and co-operation. Last but not least I am thankful to the publisher.

Kumkum Sinha

Philosophy in India did not arise out of curiosity or wonder but arose rather to meet the practical human needs in the moral and physical spheres. The metaphysical speculations are meant to provide practical guidance in leading man's journey to its highest fulfillment. Philosophy is love for knowledge or wisdom for the Westerners; for Indians it is darsana. As far as the West is concerned philosophy developed around 400 or 500 B.C. in the writings of Ionian Greek thinkers like Thales, Heraclitus etc. while in Indian philosophical intuitions of the Vedic and Upnishadic Rishis, appeared around 5000 or 6000 B.C. Balgangadhar Tilak observed that philosophical thinking begins when material conditions of a country are satisfactory. In ancient Greece the material conditions were in satisfactory state and hence philosophy first blossomed in the land of ancient Greeks in the West. In India the word widely used for philosophy is darsana. There is a difference of opinion among the scholars as to which word in Sanskrit closely approximates the word 'philosophy' in the West. R. Bala Subramaniam is of opinion that traditionally accepted word 'darsana' conveys the meaning of philosophy as it, according to respective systems, conveys a sense of vision or a profound perception or a view about reality. Darsana is derived from the root 'drs' to see and stands for knowledge, which is direct (aparoksajnana) 1. J.N.Mohanty and Bimal K. Matilal are of the view that Anaviksiki (enquiry) would be a better nomenclature since in ancient texts this word is used in the sense of what we understand by philosophy in the West.

Existence being a capacity to bring about change in the order to things we may conclude that a thing that does not change has also no existence. The idea of immutable reality is, therefore, a contradiction in terms. Unchanging is nothing but another name for 'unreal' and 'inefficient, just as changing is another name for the 'real' and the efficient. Two and a half millennia ago Lord Buddha foreshadowed Bergson, who observed in twentieth century that "for a conscious being of exist is change, to change is to mature is to go on creating oneself endlessly."

India has a rich heritage of tradition, custom, culture and philosophy handed down from Vedic ages. The Hindu philosophy originated from the Vedas much earlier to the Western one which was shaped by the Greeks. Interestingly, besides there being many similarities between the Greek and Hindu mythology, the early philosophical surmise about soul and physical body being derived from nature's elements like earth, fire, water and air which had to return to these elements after death was again a common belief in both philosophies. The concept of rebirth being there in Hinduism, it advocates constant endeavor by a human being to get liberated (Moksha) from these repeat cycles of life. Since wellbeing of a person is closely related to health, a major portion of one of the four Vedas namely Atharva Veda contained hymns or Sanskrit couplets related to health. This portion known as Ayurveda, meaning the science of life, describes the human body, its disorders and cure. Thus the knowledge emanating from this oldest Indian indigenous medicine system took root from older traditions, which were a mix of beliefs in both proven science and superstition, the same way the Western World believed in during the pre-Christian era. Most of the population are not much squinted of the Indian bioethics, which in itself has a vast store of treatment. Often when people become sick, goes to the Allopath doctor, they are not familiar with the Indian medicine how is it originated, what is its beginning.

Ayurveda is the most ancient indigenous medical system of India. The term Ayus means duration or span of life, Veda means unimpeachable knowledge. The common translation of the Ayurveda is 'science of life'. The tradition says that Brahma (the creator) was the divine source of this science, which was brought into existence before the creation of mankind. The knowledge passed from him to the god Daksapati, then to the two celestial physicians (the twin Asvina Kumaras), later to Indra the god king, and finally to Bharadvaja, the semi-divine sage. The earliest recorded knowledge about Ayurveda is found in the Rigveda and the Atharaveda, probably of the second millennium BC. But the proper knowledge of this ancient science comes mainly from some written treatises, the oldest of which are the samhitas named Bhela, Charaka and Susruta. Charaka's original was the samhita of Agnivesa, a disciple of the sage Atreya. Long passages in the Charaka Samhita are in the form of questions and answers between Atreya and Agnivesa. Chakrapani Datta in his Ayurvedadipika referred to this original Agnivesa Samhita even so late as the 11th century AD. Charaka is a class title of a school of physicians, existing from Vedic times and also the personal title of a physician in the court of king Kanishka, and possibly the title of many other physicians belonging to the same school of medicine.