Geography in the Puranas (Set of 3 Books)

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Geography in the Puranas
Geographical Survey of the Puranas	Geographical Descriptions in Visnu Purana	Geography, Peoples And Geodynamics of India In Puranas and Epics

The Puranas which belong to the class of religious literature are in fact a supplement to the Vedas. Almost all of them are sectarian in character. They are valuable from the historical point of view not only because they give the lists of dynasties but. also because they record the tradition prevalent among the masses. They afford us far greater insight into all aspects of Hinduism, its mythology, its god worship, its theism and pantheism, love of gods, philosophy, superstitions, festivals, ceremonies and its ethics. They occupy a unique position in the sacred and secular literature of the Hindus being next in importance to Vedas only. Not only Vedic metaphysics, mythology and cosmogony, not only the great legends of Brahmanas, not only the accumulated religious tradition of India, not only the multiple cults but also history, culture, chronology, poetry, sociology, geography, topo graphy, art, architecture, painting, governmental administration, agriculture, cattle- breeding, economic and social life of the people and a thousand other similar topics mapping out the entire canvas of the nation's life have gone into the making of Pauraņika literature.
The Puranas have always fascinated me not only because they are religious works but also due because they are encyclopaedic in character. So after completing my postgraduate studies, I decided to choose a topic from the Puranas for my research work. I finally opted to work on "A critical study of the geographical Data available in the Puranas." Fortunately I got a Government of India research scholarship in Humanities. The then Chairman of the Selection Committee (Government of India) advised me to restrict the scope of my subject to the four Puranas namely the Nilamata, the Matsya, the Vişnu and the Vayu Puranas only because otherwise the subject would become too vast to be completed within the stipulated time.

The geographical knowledge is very necessary. for a proper understanding of the ancient history and culture of a nation. The physical features of a country immensely influence the character of its people and their political life. The Himalayas, the Indian ocean and the passes on the north-west frontier of pre-partition India are well known for the influence they have exercised over the political history of India. The climate and the products of a country greatly affect the physique and the nature of its people. Moreover, the geographical knowledge is all the more essential in the case of a country like India which has a long history and a brilliant past. The geographical knowledge may not only be helpful to enable us to understand the Indian history but also to comprehend fully the import of the geographical terms used in the various religious, mythological and the literary works.
"A knowledge of space, no less than that of time, of geography no less than that of chronology is an indispensable prerequisite of a serious historical study." says Dr. H.C. Raychaudhuri.

Dr. (Mrs) Manjushree Tripathy, Reader in Sanskrit is an approved well known ‘B’ — High artist of All India Radio, Cuttack and Doordarshan, Bhubaneswar. She was born on 17th June 1959 at Bhubaneswar. She was a brilliant student having an outstanding first class career both in Sanskrit and Music. She is presently the Reader and Head of the U.G. Dept. of Sanskrit, Ravenshaw University, Cuttack. She has contributed 40 scholarly research papers in various national level conferences and seminars and has published in various reputed journals. Besides, she has also five numbers of Sanskrit lyrics of her own in the Nikhilotkala Kavisammelanam, Orissa. She was conferred the title ‘Lokashree Kantheswar’ by Lokabbasa Pracarasamiti in 2002 for her audio cassette entitled ‘Gitima-dhuryam’ for popularizing Sanskrit among common people.

The geographical descriptions in the Vishnu Purana are systematic touching almost all branches & modem Geography. It is attempted in this work to assess the geographical knowledge of our ancients with respect to their methodology, approach and accuracy in relation to the system of Modem Geography.

The work has eight chapters. The first chapter provides an exhaustive introduction to the conceptual background of Puranas as well as the subject matter of geography. The second chapter is ‘Concept of the Universe’ dealing with Universe in terms of its origin, shape, size, etc. of the solar system. The third chapter deals with the concept of the earth in terms of its nomenclature, shape, size as mentioned in Visnu Purana. The fourth chapter deals with concept of atmosphere. The fifth chapter describes seven insular dvipas and seven samudras. The sixth chapter deals with the regional account of the Puranic Jambudvipa with respect to her nine Varsas, major mountains, major rivers and lakes. The seventh chapter concerns with the regional account of Puranic Bharatavarsa. The last chapter deals with the summary and conclusions of the entire work.

The Puranas or the Palaeo-literature of India in Sanskrit play a significant role in projecting the rich heritage and hoary tradition of the country. The etymological meaning of the Puranas connotes that the role of Puranas to construct the history of a civilization is also equally important. Some Puranas also predict the future based on which the human society takes preventive measures to avoid any chaotic or untoward situation.

It is traditionally believed that the author of all the Principal Puranas is Bhagawan Vyasa, who compiled four Vedas that emanated from the lips of Lord Brahma. Since Maharsi Vyasa is known as or almost all the principal Puranas composed by him deal with the present, past and future of human race of a particular region or nation and this, no doubt, constitutes the basic frame of history. As per the tradition, Puranas are characterized with five important aspects and dimensions such as primary creation, secondary creation, genealogies, calculation of ages and the dynastic accounts. Besides, so many other things like location of mountains, rivers, landscaping, forests and forest products, climate and climatic changes, environment and environmental impacts, Indian system of medicine and engineering, moral values and human ethics etc. have been narrated in the Puranas in a systematic and methodical manner. Because of the all-inclusive nature of descriptions, some Puranas like Agniare regarded as the “World Encyclopaedea”.

Historians are still divided in respect of the exact date of the composition of Puranas despite the fact that authorship of all the Puranas has been ascribed to Maharsi Vyasa because the controversy centering round the identity of Bhagawan Vyasa as the compiler of the Vedas, author of Brahmasutra and composer of Puranas is still persitent in the minds of the scholars. However, almost all the scholars and researchers have accepted the antiquity of the Puranas and some of them have been described to be authored during the period pertaining to B.C. “Visnu Purana” is one among such principal Puranas, which is known to the world of scholars and historians for its antiquity and other characteristics.

So many scholars, particularly the foreign ones, have done a lot of commendable works on Indian Puranas and the outcome of the researches made on Puranas, in certain cases, has changed the course of the history of human civilization, thereby paving the way for conducting further researches to meet the curious minds. Research is a continuous process and it always aims at unearthing the unknown, undisclosed and untouched points of a particular area in a systematic and scientific manner. While preparing the present dissertation on one of the antique and important Puranas, i.e. Visnu Purana, the author, Dr. Manjushree Tripathy, seems to be fullyguided by the basic tenets of fundamental research and has made sincere efforts to unfold the untouched dimensions of the Visnu Puranas. It is needless to mention that she has been completely successful in her endeavour.

Geography is a subject that deals with the scientific study of the earth’s surface, physical features, divisions, products, population, forests, mountains, oceans, rivers, lakes; climate, climatic changes etc.. All these things have been in existence from time immemorial, particularly from the inception of the creation because the creation depends upon these geographical aspects for its sustenance and continuance. Visnu Purana, being one of the ancient literary creations of one of the most ancient savants of the country, gives a clear picture of the geography of the entire “Jambu Dvipa” of which the present “Bharat” or India is a part only. It is badly needed that all these geographical descriptions, surfaced in the Visnu Purana, should be brought to the knowledge of the modem scholars and researchers particularly the geographers; so that the modem trend of investigation in the concerned field gets anew dimension of blending the old with new for the purpose of bringing the future generations closer to Indian culture and traditions. I have no hesitation to acknowledge that the book entitled “Geographical Descriptions in Visnu Purana” will act as a bridge between the world of ancient as well as modern scholars in respect of conducting some further analytical study in the concerned area to dive deep in to the matter. And for this unique achievement, Dr. Tripathy, the architect of the work, deserves our appreciation and commendation.

It is encouraging to note that the book has been included in the series of the Golden Jubilee Publications of Rashtriya Sanskrit University. The Rashtriya Sanskrit University, located at Tirupati, the sacred abode of the Lord of Seven Hills, is a premier institution in the field of higher learning and research in Sanskrit and is well known for its uncommon intellectual outputs for which it has been adjudged as “the best” in the country by the Tondon Committee, recently appointed by the Govt. of India to review the academic and research programmes of all the deemed Universities of the country. On the eve of its completion of fifty years of its successful existence, the Vidyapeetha has already embarked upon a scheme to celebrate the Golden Jubilee during the year - 2010 by organizing so many activities such as seminars, symposia, conferences, colloquiums etc. As a part of these series of activities, it has been decided to bring out at least fifty valuable publications during the year to mark the fifty years of existence of the institution. I am happy that so many learned authors including Smt. Tripathy have come forward with their manuscripts for publication under this series to highlight the intellectual outputs of the Vidyapeetha during the year of Golden Jubilee Celebrations. Besides, a committed team of scholars in collaboration with the department of Research and publications of our University, has shouldered the responsibility to execute the various plans and programmes of Golden Jubilee Celebration in a smooth and uninterrupted manner. May I avail this opportunity to express my profound sense of gratitude to those who have become the integral parts of this mega intellectual exercise.

I wish the publication a success and pray to Lord Venkateswar for His choicest blessings to be showered upon the author; so that many more meaningful works will be emerged in future from her continuous intellectual gymnastics.

The word Purana means ‘old’. The main object of compilation of Puranas is to preserve old Indian which have come down from remote antiquity. They are the sectarian compilations of different periods of mythology, philosophy, history, geography and sacred law, even if they axe now used for religious instructions. Puranas are not only considered as the store-house of different branches of knowledge but also claimed to be the only species of Indian literature next to the Vedas. In this regard, the Vaisnava or Visnu Puranas is claimed as one of the eighteen Mahapuranas in which Lord Visnu is praised and glorified as the Supreme Being, as one and only one God with whom both Siva and Brahma are identified. He is considered to be the creator as well as protector of the Universe including the terrestrial world. The essence of all Puranas elevates its position and dignity amongst all important Puranas for which it is known as Purana Samhita. In the context of the Maha Puranas, the Visnu occupies the third position next to brahma and Padma (Visnu, III, 6.20-23). But, from historical point of view, the Visnu should be given the status quo of the first and foremost position among all Purana as because, it has been composed by Paradara, the grand-son of Vasistha, whereas, all other Puranas have been attributed to Vyasa, the son of Paradara. Besides, the Visnu is perhaps the only Purana whose contents can give the reader the best idea and significance of Puranas in general. However literature surveys and discussions with experts indicate that the Visnu Purana is perhaps the only work that spells out the Parcalaksana of Purana (i.e., sarga, Pratisarga, Vamsa, Manvantara and Vamsanucarita) and also conforms to the definition of Purana exactly.

On the contrary, geography can be defined as that discipline of science which deals with the description of the earth as the home of man where relationship between man and its environment exists. In other wards, it is that branch of science which deals with the description of the earth in terms of its various aspects i.e. land, water, air, flora, fauna and any other phenomena relating to man, The beginning and development of geographical knowledge is directly related to the development of human civilization. As geography is the science of man-land or man-environment relationship, so the earliest record of man’s interest in the nature of physical world around him contains observations and speculations, for which, no science can claim a larger geneology than that of geography. Besides, it is also a known fact that most of the subject matter of geography have been derived from the gist of other disciplines of knowledge (i.e., both from pure sciences and humanities) because of its synthetic nature. In this context, the geographical descriptions in the Visnu Purana are not only found to be concise and condense but also systematic that too touching almost all branches of modern geography. Despite such store-house of geographical knowledge, this Purana has not yet been properly explored in this regard for the sake of the common people, even if, the Sanskrit Text of Visnu Purana have been translated by different scholars at different period of time in different languages.

Therefore, it is a humble attempt not only to bring out the hidden geographical descriptions lying within the text of Visnu but also to examine and assess the geographical knowledge of our ancients with respect to their methodology, approach and accuracy in relation to the system of modern geography.

In the present context, the descriptions of the text of Visnu indicates that the ancient Indians have in their own way, contributed a lot towards the formulation of geographical concepts in the investigation of physical phenomena. The modem scholars, following the sophisticated methods and scientific techniques of investigation developed in the western countries, are sometimes apt to dismiss the works of the ancients as primitive, elementary or orthodox. Nevertheless, even casual references in the original Sanskrit text of Visnu Purana reveal sometimes very consistent and thoroughly worked out concepts which are starting in their approach and accuracy and are compared very favourably with the latest scientific concepts of modem geography. In this respect, the terminology used in the text of Visnu might be very difficult in its character but found to be exceedingly precise, consistent and expressive. Therefore, we may say that a careful perusal of the text of Visnu may bring light to many forgotton ideas which may impart freshness to our modern scientific outlook in the field of geography and provides valuable guidance to work further in the field of Puranic Geography.

As regards previous works in this field, there is a great paucity of literature since no systematic work relating to Geographical Descriptions in Purana has yet been attempted. However, some sporadic and scattered materials collected by different scholars in an attempt to identify place-names or rendering faithful translations of original text of the Visnu are available. In this connection, the works of H.H.Wilson, B.C.Law, B.C.Hazra, S.N.Mazumadar, N.L.Dey, M.S.Ali, M.P.Tripathy, B.Dube, S.Saxena and H.D.Thakur are some of the valuable sources materials for the author to give the shape of the present work. The assessment of the works done in this field suggests that the field is very wide and so far not much investigated. The scholars who undertook such studies displayed little imagination and kept themselves confined to the preconceived patterns of study. Hence, the book entitled, “Geographical Descriptions in Visnu Purana” is nodoubt an attempt to unveil the geographical contents of the text of Visnu it seems to be quite vast, for which, the author has clearly demarcated its limit before giving the final shape of this work. First of all, it is confined to the Puranic descriptions of the Universe in terms of its creation and recreation, its divisions and celestial bodies including the solar system. Secondly, it includes the Puranic concepts of the earth in terms of its lighosphers, hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere along with their related phenomena that too in relation to man. Lastly, it also includes the regional account of the Puranic world with special reference to seven insular dvipas (Continents) and seven Samudras (Oceans), the Yambudvipa (Eurasian-Landmass), the (Bharatavarsa (Greater India) and the Kumarika khanda (lndia Proper). Hence, it is clealy indicated that the entire work is based on Puranic descriptions of those facts pertaining to that of physical geography including the concept of the Universe (Le, Cosmology, Cosmogony and Cosmography) and the regional geography as per the text of Visnu.

With these preliminary considerations, the author has attempted to organise the entire work within eight chapters, of which, the first one provides an exhaustive introduction to the conceptual background of Puranas as well as the subject matter of geography along with its relevance and scope in the field of Puranas addition, it spells out the importance of the Visnu Purana along with its contents and age of its compilation; trend and status quo of Puranic researches ; aims and objectives ; scope and limitations; data base, and methodology in order to give a systematic shape of the present work. The second chapter i.e., “Concept of the Universe” is devoted to bring out the Puranic Universe in terms of its origin, shape, size, dimensions and divisions along with different celestial bodies including the solar system.

In the third chapter, an emphasis has been given to spell out the Puranic concept of the earth (Prthivi) in terms of its nomenclature, shape, size, extension and age as per the text of the Visnu. Besides, efforts have also been made in this section to give an account of the cardinal points and directions of the earth; apparent motions of the sun and their consequences; divisions of time, evolution and composition of the earth’s surface, causes and consequences of earthquakes along with oceanic phenomena like waves and tides.

However, the fourth chapter has exclusively attempted to bring out the concept of the atmosphere in terms its extent and structure along with certain important weather and climatic phenomena as per the text of the Visnu, in which, priority has been given to the concept of insolation and terrestrial radiation; concept of clouds and precipitations along with related phenomena like flood, draught and hydrological cycle. Further, attempt has also been given to explain the concept of wind and occurances of cyclones, thunders, lightnings and rainbows.

In the fifth chapter, an attempt has been made to bring out the Puranic description of the seven insular dvipas and seven samudras with respect to their arrangements, shapes, dimensions and nomenclatures in terms of modern geography. On the contrary, the sixth chapter is devoted to bring out the regional account of the Puranic Jambudvipa with respect to her nine Varsas, major mountains, major rivers and lakes. The seventh chapter has been concerned with the regional account of Puranic Bharatavarsa with special reference to Kumarikakhanda (Bharata Proper) along with her Kulaparvatas, major rivers, nations and places of Puranic importances. The last chapter deals with the summary and conclusions of the entire work. Thus, the present piece of work is considered to be very important both in the fields of Sanskrit as well as Geography because of the existence of a strong inter-relationship between these two branches of knowledge, that too, specifically in the field of Puranas verses Geography since long past. The fanciful and legendry Puranic descriptions of the text of Visnu can only be studied in proper ways provided its contents can be properly explored and highlighted through modem means of geography and vice-versa. Therefore, the present work is definitely of immense significance in both the fields (i.e., Sanskrit and Geography) in order to assess and ascertain the ancient Indians with respect to their methodology, approach and accuracy in relation to their geographical knowledge being made available in the form of Puranas.

The author feels to reveal that the present piece of work is the out come of her Ph.D. Thesis submitted to Utkal University, Bhubaneswar in December, 2004 and approved for award of the degree in January, 2006. In this connection, she expresses her deep sense of gratitude to her teacher Dr. G.K. Dash, Professor in Sanskrit, P.G. Dept. of Sanskrit, Utkal University, Bhubaneswar for his scholarly guidance and thought provoking suggestions that enabled her to complete this work. She extends her indebtedness to Dr. H.K. Satpathy, Vice-Chancellor, Rastriya Sanskrit Vidyapeetha, Tirupati not only for his voluntary cooperation on behalf of the Vidyapeetha to publish the manuscript in its existing form but also for his timely help as the former professor in Sanskrit, Sri Jagannatha Sanskrit University, Puri in providing some of the secondary source of materials along with certain valuable suggestions for the completion of this inter disciplinary work. She also equally expresses her sincere gratitude to her esteemed husband Dr. D. Tripathy, Reader in Gography, B.J.B. (Auto.) College, Bhubaneswar not only for providing geographical materials and maps but also for his systematic, critical and analytical suggestions in each step of this work failing which the present form of work would not be possible. Her special thanks to Sri P.K. Maharana, Lecturer in Geography, Narasinghpur College, Narasinghpur in the district of Cuttack for the immense pain that he has taken to finalise some of the geographical maps and diagrams in the context of the present work. She is extremely indebted to her father-in-law late I.C. Tripathy and her father late R.K. Tripathy and mother Smt. M.S. Devi for their inspirations that inspired her to complete this work. Last but not least, she records her sincere feelings to her daughters, ‘Amrita’, ‘Arya’ and ‘Atmaja’ not only for their cooperation but also their constant inspirations and encouragements during the entire period of this work.

Written by a geologist who read the texts of the Puranas and the Epics in Conjunction with a mass of studies on geological history of the larger Indian Continent and his own extensive field work in different parts of the country this illustrated book endeavors to demonstrate that the narratives by scholarly sages embodied in these ancient Sanskrit works do not represent figments of poetic imagination but provide if shorn of metaphors idiomatic phrases and allegories the revealing facts and invaluable information on the geography and geomorphological layout the ethnicity of the people who lived in different parts of the country the flora and fauna that peopled the land of Bharatvarsha and the drastic geodynamic events and climatic changes that overtook the land particularly in the last 12,000 years of the Holocene Epoch called the Chaturyuga in the Puranas and Epics.

The scholars of the Puranas and epics time were quite knowledgeable about the origin evolution and progression of life including the coming of man the interior of the earth the dynamics of crustal upheavals the occurrence mining and metallurgy of minerals the tapping of natural gas reclaiming land from seas and building bridges across even a sea.

The relevant original Sanskrit text givesn in the Devanagari Script is accompanied by the authors interpretation rigorously tested on the anvil of incontrovertible evidence adduced from scientific studies on geological phenomena human genetic markers climate changes and backed up by tell tale photographs.

Recipient of many national awards including S.S. Bhatnagar Prize (1976) of the council of Scientific & Industrial Research National Mineral Award of Excellence (1997) of the Ministry of Mines Pitambar Pant Environment Fellow (1982-1984) of the Ministry of Environment & Forests Hindi Sevi Samman (2007) of the Ministry of Human Resource Development Padmashree (2007) of the Government of India National Lecturer (1977-1978) of the University Grants commission D.N. Wadia Medal (1995) of Indian National Science Academy and L. Rama Rao Gold Medal (1980) of the geological Society of Indian Prof. K.S. Valdiya is a fellow of all the three national Science Academies of India the third world Academy of Sciences the Geological Society of America and the Geological Society of Nepal.

Presently he is Honorary Prof. of geodynamics at Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research Bengaluru. He has held high positions as Additional director in the wadia institute of Himalayan geology as Prof. of geology, Dean Science and Vice Chancellor in Kumaun University and Golden Jubilee Research Prof. of Indian National Science academy at Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for advanced Scientific research. He has also been a distinguished Guest Prof. at Indian Institute of technology Mumbai and Visiting Honorary Prof. at the Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee.

He has written several books and monographs including Geology of Kumaun Lesser Himalaya (1980) Aspects of tectonics Focus on Southcentral Asia (1984) Envrionmental Geology Indian Context (1987) Dynamic Himalayan (1998) Saraswati the river that disappeared (2002) Geology, Environment and Society (2005) the making of India geodynamic Evolution (2010) and Ek Thi Nadi Saraswati (2010) his is a prolific writer popularizing earth science and general science.

Various Factors sum up to make a study valuable and expedient. The reach and scope of the topic selected the significance of the primary data used the propriety of the line of approach followed the sobriety of the inferences drawn and conclusions arrived at and above all the competence of the scholar to do justice to his subject are admittedly the most potent ones among them. And I have no hesitation in starting that this book authored by K.S. Valdiaya is worthwhile on all these counts.

The epics and the Puranas constitute the primary source material of the present study and define its spatio temporal scope. To begin with this in itself is a notable point. For who can deny the importance of the epics and the puranas? The two together constitute the two eyes so to say through which one can see the significant role in formation of Indian psyche can hardly be exaggerated. Besides they are valuable not only for an Indian point of view but have a universal relevance and appeal as well. In fact as a set of global literary heritage they stage unique in their content and coverage. To be sure there is no other known ancient literature anywhere in this world that is as rich in knowledge and wisdom and as expansive in its geographical and chronological horizons as the epics and the Puranas. The rigveda is undoubtedly the earliest book known to us, but it is surpassed by the Purãnas in antiquity of contents. Though couched in a much later language, the Puranas provide us a lot of pre-Rigvedic information.

A study of the epics and the Puranas is most welcome today because of another reason too. The European scholars, who initiated modem study of ancient Indian texts in nineteenth century, labelled them as ‘mythology’, meaning thereby that they were figments of poetic imagination and the descriptions contained in them were not factual. This stigma falsely attached to them has ever since deterred many a worthy scholars from taking them seriously. Even today, in certain quarters, this false notion persists. As a result, the epics and the Puranas could not get the attention they deserve. Prof. Valdiya is right in totally rejecting this ‘mythology thesis’ since the perpetrators of this thesis are doubly wrong. Firstly, it is incorrect to label all epic and Puranic descriptions as mythology. Secondly, and more importantly, mythologies are not unreal. Due mostly to phonetic resemblance, the English term ‘myth’ and Sanskrit word ‘mithyaa’ have been confused with each other and taken to denote the same sense. But, basically they have different connotations. While the Sanskrit word ‘mithyaa’ means ‘false’, the English term ‘myth’ originally meant ‘word’ or ‘speech’ (equivalent to Sanskrit ‘vaach’), a meaning still preserved in Greek. The modem distortion, nay, complete reversal in the meaning of ‘myth’ is uncritical and unfortunate to say the least, for ‘myth’ in its pristine sense is closer in meaning to ‘real’ than to what we understand by ‘fact’. Fortunately, this truth is being realized gradually and cultures are being defined now in terms of their unique ‘systems of images’ (Bimba-Vidhaana) constituted by networks of symbols, metaphors and myths.

Prof. Valdiya is an eminent geologist with commendable reach in many other disciplines, and it is but natural that his writings would have an impact of his unique academic make-up. With a true scholar’s politeness (vidyaa dadaati vina yam), he writes in the Preface of this work: “I wish to emphasize that this is not a scholarly treatise, nor a comprehensive analysis. It is just a geologist’s interpretation.” In fact, it is this geologist’s perspective, the geologist’s angle of looking at things, that makes this book extremely significant and distinguishes it from all other over three dozen books hitherto published in the field of epic and Puranic studies.

I read the texts of the Puranas and the epics in Conjuction with a mass of studies on the geological history of the Indian Continent and my own fieldwork in the Himalayan the Kachchh-Saurashtra region the Aravali the Vindhya the mountainous Peninsular India and the western coastal belt. I realized that the accounts given in the works of Valmiki and Krishna Dvaipayan Vyas cannot be rubbished and ignored. They do proved kernels of truths of revealing facts even though they are enmeshed in verbose language full of metaphors and allegories. As I read and re-read these works my awareness increased considerably of the historical values of the narratives in the Purans by Scholarly sages and spiritual leaders.

The interpretation of these narratives and descriptions brings out the perspective of the geography of the lands inhabited by the peoples of the Puran time. The authors of these works adopted the mode of story telling presumably to convey the subjects to the general public in a memorable and enjoyable manner. I realized that we tend to interpret and have indeed interpreted the ancient texts by taking meaning today of the words of the language that has evolved considerably over the last at least three to four thousand years. Surely the meaning of the three-to four thousand years old words and phrases have changed and cannot be taken to mean the same thing or convey the sense the original authors wanted to. Moreover Sanskrit of the past when in wide use must have been enriched by idioms. Being careful of the strong possibility of idioms in the Puranic narratives, I have desisted from literal translation of shlokas.

Shorn of metaphors and desisting from resort to allegories, I read the texts in the context of natural geodynamic events of the last eleven thousand years of what the earth scientists call the Holocene Epoch. I have endeavored to find the geological reality lying behind the stories and anecdotes narrated by various sages and passed down the oral pipeline from generation to generation. I have ventured to highlight only a few of the many crucial points as examples to show the depth of wisdom, the spectrum of knowledge, and the range of interests of the authors of the Purãns, the Ramayan and the Mahabharat that were conceived three to four thousand years ago. From the accurate and comprehensive accounts of geography of the vast land encompassing not only the Indian subcontinent but also Central Asia, it is obvious that among the peoples of the Purana times lived great explorers and intrepid adventurers who roamed the lands and the seas.

It emerged that Mount Meru, located at the centre of the continent Jambudweep, was the focal point of what I would like to call the Puranland. It turns out that the Mew is the Puranic name of the Pämir massif of the present. The history with geography given in the Purans and epics is, therefore, of the vast stretch of the land encompassing the countries of the Indian subcontinent and Central Asia around the Pamir massif.

Most of the mountains and rivers discussed in the Purans and the epics have been precisely located in modem maps. The scholars knew the trends and dimension of mountains and the precise sources of rivers emanating from them. They knew the rivers’ points of discharges into the seas. They were quite familiar with the natural environments with their floras and faunas of the terrains. They were aware of the crustal movements that caused shifting of the courses of rivers and their blockages leading to formation of lakes. Their spiritual leaders chose to locate the holy shrines in geomorphic ally picturesque and geologically extraordinary places, characterized by singularly fantastic geodynamic features resulting from uncommon earth processes. And these were located in different parts of the country extending from the Mount Kailas in the north to Kanyakumari in the south, from Saurashtra in the west to Assam in the east. Importantly, the spiritual leaders and the scholarly sages made the peoples to visit religiously and regularly these shrines as well as teerths developed on the river banks in different parts of the country. The idea behind this practice seems to be to persuade the people to know peoples who speak different languages, eat and dress differently, have different lifestyles and observe different socio-cultural practices. This was a marvelous mode of integrating the peoples of the country.

The rishis (sages) were fired by the mission of spreading education and knowledge of the philosophy of life, as they established ashram after ashram in wooded tracts of the tribals in different parts of the country.

Profound thinkers and keen observers that they were, the Puranic scholars had a fairly accurate idea of the structure of the earth, and the origin, evolution and progression of life on land. They not only knew where the ores occur, but also methods of the mining and converting them into metals. They also harnessed the gases that oozed out from underground sources and burned as flames. They had fairly good grip of the science of engineering of fortifying towns, reclaiming lands from the sea, and building bridges across even a sea. And they could interpret uncommon signals of geophysical changes and anomalous behavior of birds and animals; and had the prescience of imminent occurrence of natural hazards.

These and many things more that I could read between the lines of ancient texts of the Purans and the epics are discussed briefly. Admittedly, I could not help but project my perception based on my understanding of the geological setting, geographical layout and geodynamic development in the Indian continent. I wish to emphasize that this is not a scholarly treatise, nor a comprehensive analysis. It is just a geologist’s interpretation, presented with a modest objective of providing a few telling examples indicating that the Purans and epics do contain reliable source material for writing the geography and the history of India in the prehistoric times.