The site of Khairadih having an imposing mound was excavated horizontally for several seasons by archaeologists of Banaras Hindu University. An extensive habitation with strong socio-cultural set-up with vibrant techno-economic activities was unearthed in excavations conducted for several seasons. The present report on the excavations gives a comprehensive account on life and culture during the Proto-historic-Early Historic period. The unique contribution of these excavations is evidence of technological activities in form of full- fledged workshops complete with kilns, furnaces and forges etc. revealing information on ceramic technology, glass working, metallurgy and coinage.
This report emphasizes on scientific and analytical study of archaeomaterials belonging to Early-historic period in the Middle Ganga plain. Taking cognizance of technological achievements unearthed archaeologically, the present work attempts to evaluate the social response to technological developments. The social organization in the form of the varna system echoed in the social hierarchy perceptible in the specialized craft production. This process contributed in a big way to urbanization of Ganga Plain which evolved as area of attraction giving rise to emergence of the Mahajanapadas by the sixth century BCE. In light of Khairadih excavations, issues like pattern of adaptation of technology, growing technological innovations and their wider social-cultural and politico economic ramifications have been closely evaluated in the larger context of socio-cultural life of the Ganga Plain here.
Dr Vibha Tripathi (b. 1948) is Emeritus Professor in the Department of Ancient Indian History, Culture & Archaeology. She has worked extensively in proto-historic and early historic archaeology, contributing nearly 200 papers and ten books on various aspects of Ancient Indian History, Culture and Archaeology. Although she specializes in the field of ancient Indian technology, especially in ceramics and metallurgy, she emphasizes on holistic reconstruction of the past through her works. She is widely travelled participating and chairing sessions in National and International conferences, seminars and symposia. As a member of several national and international academic bodies, she contributes to National policies. Presently, she is member of several societies and important national bodies for History of Science, Indian National Science Academy (INSA); Science and Heritage Research Initiative, Department of Science and Technology (DST), Government of India.
In recognition to her sustained contributions to the field of Ancient Indian Culture and Archaeology, she has been bestowed several prestigious awards like the Bharatiya Manisha Sutram' Award and V.S. Wakankar Award (2017). More recently, she received Newton Funding award by STFC Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, Oxford and Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advance Scientific Research to undertake in-depth research in the field of archaeometallurgy.
Khairadih is an archaeological site in a remote part of eastern Uttar Pradesh. It is situated on the bank of river Ghaghra or Sarayu, a major tributary traversing Uttar Pradesh and parts of Bihar which joins Ganga at the site of Chirand in Saran district of Bihar. Looking at the impressive size and crucial location of the mound at Khairadih, the archaeologists of Banaras Hindu University realized its archaeological potential. Excavations were planned and conducted at the site for several seasons in two phases - from 1980-84 to 1985-86 and again in the session 1996-94. In many ways, these excavations proved fruitful revealing three cultural periods - pre-NBPW, NBPW and Kusana periods. The horizontal excavations conducted at the upper cultural strata of the site yielded flourishing and well laid out settlement belonging to Kusana period which had evolved on the foundations of the antecedent cultures. The well planned horizonal excavations conducted under the direction of Late Prof. K.K. Sinha exposed Kusana period settlement. The structures were impressive, many with underground structures meant for storage of the surplus produce. There were roads with rut marks and lanes joining the main road. In addition to the structures, the excavations threw valuable light on archaeomaterials, especially on aspects of metallurgy prevalent during the early historic period. The evidence of smelting, forging and smithy - both of iron and copper during the NBPW period may be taken to be a special contribution of excavations at Khairadih. Fairly detailed information could be gathered on ceramics and glass working pursued during the Sunga-Kusana period at the site. A noteworthy finding was an area with a shaft furnace or hearth with an ash filled bowl-shaped mouth which was littered with uninscribed copper cast coins. This may be one of the rare evidences wherein coins have been found in stratigraphically well definable context, in this particular case belonging to the late NBPW period. Some of the coins have been analysed by us (the catalogue of coins is being published separately). Such evidence coming forth from one particular area closer to the river front may have wider cultural ramifications. The Arthasastra and texts on laying down of settlements had defined areas demarcated for different activities or different sections of society engaged in their specific vocations. The settlement pattern exposed at Khairadih appears to be following the directives laid down in the ancient Indian Silpasastra.
The present study on the excavations on Khairadih is more focused on investigations on archaeomaterials, a cultural dimension which generally fails to receive due attention of archaeologists. Such an anomaly has been taken care of in the present case. Knowing my keen interest in metals and metallurgy, Late Prof. K.K. Sinha entrusted me with the study of metal objects found in excavations at Khairadih. Study of metal objects was taken up by me soon after. However, the sudden demise of Prof. Sinha was a big jolt to reconstruction and publication. It caused an undue delay in publication of the report of the excavation. It was placed on back burner in preference to newer archaeological projects undertaken under the aegis of the Department of Ancient Indian History, Culture and Archaeology. Somehow, against great odds when the report on Khairadih excavations was finally published by Dr B.P. Singh assisted by Deepak Kumar Rai (2014), even then the evidences on metals and metallurgy could not be incorporated in it. Fresh excavations were conducted at Khairadih in the session 1996-97 under my direction. A brief report on the second excavations (1996-97) was published (Tripathi and Singh 2004). Along with the cultural remains, a brief account on metal objects found from both the excavations was also incorporated in it. But in view of the impressive metal repertoire and their metallurgical significance, that reporting seemed somewhat inadequate. Therefore, it becomes obligatory on my part now to deal with the evidence of metals and metallurgy at length to highlight the significance of the findings and put it before the scholars lest it is lost for good. However, after a long gap of nearly three decades since the metal objects were cleaned, classified, studied and recorded, retrieval of precise data is not so easy. The drawings and photographs taken decades back had to be fished out and reproduced. In many cases, the metal objects have corroded and their shapes have changed. At times it has not even been possible to match drawing and plates. It is with lots of extra efforts that I have been able to put things together here, even though not to my full satisfaction. But my passionate pursuit of metallurgy in ancient India led to analysis of material with the help of experts in the field of metallurgy and material science. This has helped me reconstruct ancient iron metallurgy on the basis of material from excavations at Khairadih and to situate it in the larger perspective of technological development in India, especially in the middle Ganga plain. With the help of researches conducted globally incorporating ethnographic and literary evidences at hand, I could reconstruct three smelting furnaces, the base of which was found in the excavation. Besides iron working, we came across copper working areas with slag, refractory material and tools of ore crushing and smithy. Khairadih also yielded a composite workshop of glass and copper working. Glass beads and a copper coloured glass tile to be used in fashioning of glass objects is a unique finding of the excavations. This area also yielded copper slag and finished metal objects - all from the same complex. The workshop areas also revealed several exquisite copper-bronze objects. Special mention may be made here of an elaborately decorated model chariot having spoke wheels. The body of the chariot is beautifully decorated. It bears the auspicious ,.'Srivatsa symbol, a commonly occurring symbol on Sunga copper coins. A double chambered ceramic kiln with tiles and a separate chamber for pottery firing is other noteworthy evidence yielded in these excavations. In nutshell, we may say that the painstaking archaeological investigations carried out at the site of Khairadih paid dividends. It shed new light, especially on archaeomaterials during the early historic period. The site of Khairadih brought forth new dimensions on cultures of middle Ganga plain. These craft or 'technology' related activities at the site make it appear like an industrially active and economically affluent centre. The economic affluence perceptible in cultural remains, like the exquisite craft products and impressive structures is a consequence of flourishing trade and commerce taking place there. The present work pays close attention to this aspect of culture as revealed at Khairadih. I am placing the results of my investigations of archaeomaterials with all its limitation with the hope that it will inspire younger archaeologists to take more interest in scientific investigations of material unearthed in excavations. Through such pursuit we will be able to unveil the expertise possessed by Indian craftsmen in diverse technically advanced fields of activities. Such glorious achievements of the craftsmen of India and their incessant and innovative spirit had placed India among the most affluent countries of the world by opening centuries of the Common Era.
In the end, I will like to reiterate the need to reconstruct the technocultural dimension of Indian civilization. This may be achieved through interdisciplinary approach to investigations of archaeomaterials. Whatever, little has been achieved here despite limitations of varied kinds is being placed before scholars for their scrutiny in the hope of getting constructive feedback which may give directions to future researches in the area of scientific research in India.
Middle Ganga plain assumed a great significance during the proto-historic and early historic period which witnessed the emergence of Magadhan Imperial power by the middle of the first millennium BCE. The Neolithic-Chalcolithic phases graduated to an evolved level of material culture that grew into an urban civilization in course of time. The saga of prosperity of this region is corroborated by the remains of the material culture unearthed through innumerable excavations conducted at sites pertaining to various cultural periods. Sites like Kausambi, Bhita, Ayodhya, Sravasti, Rajghat, Vaisali, Rajgir, Kumrahar and scores of others which were mentioned in the Buddhist texts have been excavated. These archaeological investigations spread over decades have brought us face to face with the material remains left behind by the inhabitants of those sites. Through these remains, we may virtually get a peep in life of people, the creativity of the artists; intellectual pursuits, thought processes gone into the creative urge which have been expressed through various mediums. The excavations have unearthed the pattern of culture and vocations of people belonging to different cultural phases. The picture more often than not is further corroborated by the texts of the later Vedic and early Buddhist periods. A close study of archaeomaterials reveals the changing socioeconomic priorities and shifting paradigms of life through the millennia. The developments perceptible in the material remains reflect the personality of cultures of the Ganga plain over the span of centuries. The favourable growth environment attracted talents from all over enriching the cultural scenario of the fertile plain. The changes are manifest in the art-architecture, religion-philosophy, social and political thoughts of high order that grew in this ambience.
In recent decades, the archaeologists have taken up the challenge of discovering the potential cultural centres with renewed vigour. Not only new archaeological sites of different nature located across the alluvial plain are being discovered, newer ways of interpretation of archaeo-materials are being employed. Explorations conducted under village to village survey scheme placed on the archaeological map several important sites including the site of Khairadih, the main subject of inquiry of the present work. The excavations conducted at the site of Khairadih in two phases during 1980-86 and 1996-97 have proved significant in many ways. Firstly, Khairadih is one of the earliest horizontally excavated sites in the region; secondly, it yielded rare evidences on ancient technologies, especially on metallurgy and other archaeomaterials like ceramics and glass making. While discussing the results of the excavations, it will be in fitness of things to closely examine the excavated material with available analytical tools and highlight the potentially valuable evidences on technological developments which brought about major socio-cultural changes in the middle Ganga plain especially around the period of the first millennium BCE.
The village of Khairadih (district Ballia, Uttar Pradesh Lat. 26° 10' N, Long. 83° 15' 30" E) is located on the tri-junction of three districts of Uttar Pradesh in the middle Ganga plain, that is, Mau, Ballia and Deoria (fig. 1). The mound of Khairadih is situated on the right bank of river'Ghaghara or Sarayu, a major tributary of Ganga system. The area across the river on its left bank is geographically defined as Sarayupar plain. It has yielded a good number of sites like Sohgaura, Narhan, Chirand, Manjhi, etc. But for some local variations, these sites on both banks of river Sarayu in middle Ganga plain more and less form one single cultural unit. Little doubt that the river Sarayu played a major role in shaping the personality of cultures along its banks. The present report on excavations at Khairadih (1996-97) will also take into account the material evidence coming forth from previous excavations conducted at the site as well as the neighbouring sites for comparative purposes wherever relevant. Before dealing with the archaeological evidence, it may be proper to situate the protohistoric - early historic - historic cultures of the region in their ecological setting.
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